[ty] Refactor argument matching / type checking in call binding (#18997)

This PR extracts a lot of the complex logic in the `match_parameters`
and `check_types` methods of our call binding machinery into separate
helper types. This is setup for #18996, which will update this logic to
handle variadic arguments. To do so, it is helpful to have the
per-argument logic extracted into a method that we can call repeatedly
for each _element_ of a variadic argument.

This should be a pure refactoring, with no behavioral changes.

Author: dcreager